Car Clubs / Car Sharing Research Project
Car Share and Car Clubs: Potential Impacts (Final Report)
2. Summary of Findings from Phase One
This section of the interim report summarises the findings from literature review, the interviews with professionals and experts, and from the surveys of public attitudes and experiences.
A list of the documents consulted during Phase One is shown in Appendix I, It was compiled on the basis of our knowledge of the field, the results of a literature search and the addition of recent documents recommended to us by consultees.
A list of individual experts and professionals to be consulted during Phase One was compiled on the basis of our knowledge of the field supplemented by recommendations from the Steering Group and consultees. Care was taken to include a balance of views from those with practical experience in the establishment and support of car sharing or car clubs, from those with a policy background and from those capable of a more detached perspective. Since representatives of all these perspectives will need to be contacted in Phase Three and it would neither be appropriate or possible to interview all of the same people for a second time, it was necessary to be selective in the choice of people for the Phase One Interviews. The resulting list is shown as Appendix II. The interviews were conducted during July, August and September 2001.
Members of the public were consulted during August and September 2001. A focus group was held with existing, occasional and lapsed car sharers. Members and exmembers of Edinburgh City Car Club were interviewed by telephone and e-mail. Selfcompletion questionnaires (see Appendix III) were distributed in a rural area in North Yorkshire, a wealthy area in Leeds and in a deprived area in Leeds. The survey respondents included car owners, non-car owners, city residents, rural residents, people with high and low incomes, young people and old people, members of ethnic minorities and people with mobility problems. There is however, no suggestion that they are a representative cross section of society.
2.1 Findings from the Literature Review
2.1.1 Car clubs
The literature on car clubs is limited in nature. Much of the documentation issued in
recent years is produced by those with an interest in the field and is poorly referenced.
There is little academic work on the subject of car clubs and it has not been possible
to examine and substantiate all the claims that have been made for the success of car
clubs.
The literature suggests that whilst there are approximately 50 car clubs in continental Europe and North America. This figure is difficult to substantiate because several of the clubs mentioned in the literature are no longer in existence and because there is no clear definition of what constitutes a separate club - some are based on a small group of friends while others can gave a membership of several thousand. The most successful clubs are in Germany, Switzerland, Germany and the Netherlands, the best known being Mobility Carshare (a nationwide club in Switzerland), StatdAuto (in Bremen) and StattAuto (in Berlin). There are fewer than a dozen car clubs in the UK (the best known being the Edinburgh, Bristol, Cranfield and Leeds) - none of which approach the scale of the continental schemes mentioned above.
It is suggested that better integration between modes as well as higher quality public transport is responsible for the greater proliferation and success elsewhere in Europe.
It is notable that many successful schemes in Europe evolved from local initiatives with significant input from individuals acting as 'green entrepreneurs'.
The literature suggests that membership of a car club will be cheaper than car ownership for people whose annual mileage is less than 8000 miles. The savings, relative to the full cost of car ownership, increase as annual mileage decreases.
A number of benefits of car clubs are identified in the literature. The main benefits for members are seen to be access to cars at lower cost than car ownership (if car use is not high), access to cars by non car owners and access to specialist vehicles at relatively low cost. The main benefits for the community are seen to be reduced car use, reduced social exclusion, increased sense of community and encouragement of a multi-modal lifestyle involving greater use of local facilities (thus encouraging more environmentally sustainable land-use patterns). It is further suggested that, since car clubs result in a more realistic marginal cost for car use, a more efficient transport system will result.
Although most of the literature is fairly rose-tinted, it does identify some potential disadvantages of car clubs. It is acknowledged that membership of a car club would be less convenient than car ownership for most people and that the environmental benefits would be negated if increased trips by former non-car owners outweigh reduced trips by former car owners.
The literature identifies a number of factors required for successful operation of a car club. These include:
- support, financial or otherwise, from government and commercial organisations - particularly during the start-up phase;
- a committed core of enthusiastic members, often referred to as "early adopters";
- good publicity and information;
- partnership with public transport and car rental companies;
- well-located parking bays and car stations - close to residential areas and public transport nodes;
- a dense development pattern with restricted availability of parking for 'normal' cars; and
- reliable technology.
2.1.2 Car sharing
There is a considerable amount of literature concerning car sharing extending back to
the 1970's. It includes several papers on the potential contribution of car sharing to
transport policy and analyses of issues such as the interaction between car sharing and
public transport. The literature also contains analyses of several car sharing schemes
and identifies good practice in the organisation of such schemes. It is, however, not
easy to establish the current full extent of car sharing in the UK. The National Travel
Survey can be used to estimates of the amount of sharing for different types of
journey but does not allow for a distinction between organised car sharing and
informal car sharing.
2.2 Findings from the Interviews and Surveys
Sections 2.2.1 - 2.2.6 represent a distillation of the points made by our professional and lay contacts.
2.2.1 Benefits and disbenefits of car clubs
Perceived benefits for members included:
- non car owners achieve access to cars and obtain greater mobility thereby;
- cost savings for previous car owners who do not need to use a car very often;
- increased status (being seen driving a nice car);
- access to new vehicles;
- access to a wide range of vehicle types (eg people carriers / city cars / utility vehicles);
- freedom from responsibility of car ownership (maintenance, insurance, fear of vandalism, space taken up in driveway or garage)
- no need to own a second car;
- enhanced sense of community.
The perceived disbenefits for users included:
- reduced independence and ability to make spontaneous journeys;
- reduced status (if previous car was a good one);
- club vehicles not available to young drivers in the household;
- difficult access to parking stations (particularly in sparsely populated areas);
- frustration when no car available;
- frustration if technology is unreliable;
- problems caused by irresponsible behaviour of other club members; and
- minimal saving (if do a high mileage or if previous vehicle was old/cheap to run).
The perceived benefits for the community included:
- car clubs encourage a more integrated and rational choice of modes (with public transport, walk, bicycle, taxi, car club car and car-rental being used as and when appropriate and with an overall reduction in car mileage);
- car clubs may serve to wean car owners away from car use;
- car clubs can reduce social exclusion of non car owners;
- greater use of local facilities resulting, in the long term, in more sustainable landuse patterns; and
- enhanced sense of community.
The perceived disbenefits for the community included:
- car clubs may encourage non car owners to use cars thus leading to increased traffic and reduced revenue for public transport;
- for non car owners, car clubs may act as a stepping-stone towards car ownership;
- if non car owners are encouraged to use cars, they may reduce their use of local facilities - with adverse long term consequences for land-use patterns; and
- resources devoted to car clubs would be directed away from modes higher up the "sustainable transport pecking order" (i.e. walking, cycling and public transport).
2.2.2 Factors affecting the performance of car clubs
The greater success of car clubs in Germany and Switzerland was commented on by
several people (although a number of Swiss residents were only vaguely aware of the
car club concept). Reasons for the comparative success of car clubs in Germany and
Switzerland was attributed to several factors:
- The better provision of public transport in these countries. It is noted that the car club concept is a multi-modal concept and cannot function effectively in the absence of good public transport and/or taxis.
- Effective integration of car clubs with public transport and other modes. The availability to club members of discounts on Swiss public transport is seen to be a significant selling point (the effect of the recent establishment of a similar arrangement in Bristol, involving Firstbus, will be worth watching). The interoperability of the Bremen Autokarte smartcard which facilitates access to car club cars, including payment, as well as payment on public transport, was thought to be very attractive. The availability to club members of subsidised taxi services and free bicycles was also praised. It is notable that public transport operators in Switzerland perceive car clubs not as a competitor but as a complement to their services and are actively involved in promoting the concept. The recent offer by Bristol Firstbus of free bus travel for year to car club members who sell their car may be an indication that this attitude to car clubs could take root in the UK public transport industry.
- Different attitude to car ownership. It is suggested that UK people are more individualistic in outlook and more proprietorial about their cars. This may be a national characteristic or may simply reflect the higher cost of car ownership in the UK (European countries tend to have lower car ownership costs, higher car ownership but lower car usage - "it is as if the ownership is no big deal in Europe whereas, in the UK it is a significant investment and so brings status").
Other factors affecting the performance of car clubs, for which there is no particular difference between the UK and Europe, include:
- Existence of a committed organiser. Some of the greatest successes have been attributable to the efforts of a small number of dedicated individuals. The concept seems to work particularly well if it results from a strong local initiative.
- A receptive local population. The early schemes were typically in middle class areas with a strong interest in environmental and social issues.
- The availability of well-located parking stations. Ideally they are located for convenient access from residences and public transport nodes with good security and an attractive design.
- Suitable type of area. Ideally a fairly densely built-up area with a shortage of parking places.
- Reliable technology. The positive experience of Bremen was contrasted with problems experienced in Edinburgh.
- Effective marketing. There is a perception that neither the general public, nor local authorities, understand what car clubs are. The former can make it difficult to recruit members and the latter can be a particular problem in gaining support for new schemes.
2.2.3 Benefits and disbenefits of car sharing
Our discussions with professionals and the public identified a similar list of benefits
and disbenefits to that already available in the literature. There were, however, some
differences of emphasis.
The following benefits were identified for car sharers:
- more comfortable than public transport;
- greater personal security than walking, cycling or public transport;
- potential cost savings for drivers and their passengers;
- access to preferential car parking spaces (where provided);
- companionship.
Against which were set the following disbenefits to sharers:
- reduced independence and flexibility (for driver and passenger);
- potentially less personal security than when driving alone;
- may not want companionship!
The main benefits for the employers who organise a scheme at their workplace were seen to be:
- reduced need for parking spaces;
- access to a larger employment market;
- increased corporate identity and employee welfare.
Against which were set the following potential disbenefits for employers:
- resources required to establish and maintain the system;
- possible excuse for absenteeism, lateness or inflexible work hours.
The main advantages for the community were seen to be:
- potential reduction in car mileage (if the sharing is between two or more people who formerly drove solo);
- reduced need for loss-making public transport (only if car sharing can meet the needs of all the former passengers).
Against which were set the following potential disbenefits to the community:
- reduced revenue for public transport (may make services financially non-viable);
- potential increase in car mileage (if the existence of a car sharing scheme encourages more car ownership - on the grounds of reduced cost, or if the diversions required to pick up passengers are significant).
2.2.4 Factors affecting the amount of informal car sharing
The factors thought to influence the amount of informal sharing include:
- The provision of special privileges for high occupancy vehicles. High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes were frequently mentioned. The evidence suggests that they can have a very positive effect on levels of sharing. (eg recent Leeds evidence). An interesting variant on the HOV lane, popular with authorities in the USA, is the "High Occupancy Toll" (HOT) lane. HOT lanes allow multi-occupant vehicles to use a toll lane free of charge. Some HOT lanes are former Toll lanes, Others are former HOV lanes into which toll-paying vehicles are now allowed (contrary to expectation, the number of multi-occupancy vehicles actually increased when the toll was imposed - perhaps the value of the perk was more apparent when others were seen to be willing to pay for it). Other privileges offered to high occupancy vehicles include exemption from road user charges (Singapore example) and special/reduced price parking spaces.
- Ambient levels of car ownership and quality of public transport. Sharing is greatest where car ownership is low and public transport poor.
- Costs of car use. Other things being equal, sharing increases with the cost of car use. This implies that an increase in fuel prices or parking charges, or the introduction or a workplace parking levy, or road user charging, will tend to result in increased sharing.
2.2.5 Factors affecting the performance of organised car sharing schemes
The factors identified above for informal sharing do, of course, also apply to
organised sharing. The following additional factors were identified as important to the
success of an organised car sharing scheme. Again the list echoes the points made in
the published literature:
- The need for total commitment by the organiser. At employment sites this implies designation of a member of staff to run the scheme, provision of incentives (see below), allowing matches to be arranged during work hours, toleration of occasional lateness due to problems with a lift.
- The need for clear incentives for participants. By far the most effective is seen to be the provision of parking spaces which would otherwise not be available and/or the provision of parking spaces at desirable locations (near the office entrance or near the car-park exit). Other incentives being provided include financial rewards for not driving solo (Pfizer).
- A sensitive and efficient matching system. Taking account of home and work location, desired departure/arrival time, and personal preferences in respect of smoking, music and gender of travel partner.
- Provision of emergency back-up travel in case the driver fails to turn up. This is normally in the form of a taxi - although it is noted that this may not be satisfactory in the morning peak when taxis are often booked up with school runs, therefore a back up individual within the company may be needed. It appears that the provision of back-up is not expensive because, in practice, it is rarely called on.
2.2.6 Other comments on car clubs and car sharing
A number of other issues were raised during our interviews with professionals.
Among these, the following were put particularly strongly:
- Marketing and publicity for car clubs should emphasise the financial advantage that car clubs can bring to members. The "green" image of car clubs may act as a deterrent.
- Organisers of car clubs need a great deal of advice and assistance. It is suggested that this advice and assistance will best come from people who have already had direct experience of setting up car clubs.
- Advice and assistance for car club organisers is available through the Community Car-Share Network (CCSN), a not-for-profit organisation funded through a combination of grants and charges for its literature. Its current grant funding expires in two years time.
- Unless car clubs receive financial assistance to take them through the set-up stage, they necessarily have to adopt cheap, do-it-yourself, low-technology solutions which may not appeal to the mass of potential members.
- Although a high-tech approach is generally recommended for car clubs, it is vital that it is completely reliable.
- Local authorities can be very helpful in the establishment of car clubs (provision of finance, provision of sites for parking stations, help with publicity and marketing, adoption of helpful policies in respect of parking controls and planning consents) but most are unaware of the potential role of car clubs as part of a sustainable, multi-modal, transport system.
- It is suggested that the introduction of a workplace parking levy may lead to the introduction of car clubs at work. This might come about if employers sought to avoid the charge by converting employee parking spaces to business-use parking and providing, instead of company cars, a pool of cars for business-use during the day and for employees' use outside work hours. (One must however question whether 'car clubs' of this type would be desirable and whether use of spaces in this way would be seen as a loophole by the local authorities and if so would they seek to close it and succeed in doing so. It might also be that the cars in this type of car club would be taxed as if they were ordinary company cars).
- Insurance is a significant item of expenditure for car clubs. Currently negotiated packages effectively rule out the possibility of membership by the young or elderly.
- Young people are quite keen on the idea of car clubs as a way of gaining access to a car, however their involvement in car clubs is restricted because of the cost of insurance. It is noted that, if this problem could be overcome, there might be great benefits from getting young people to appreciate the benefits of this form of car "ownership" before they taste the delights of conventional ownership. (the contrary view is that it might simply hasten their migration to car ownership).
- Elderly people have a vehicle-use profile which might ideally suit car club membership - but tend to be put-off by the percieved complexity and inconvenience of car clubs.
- Car club membership will be beyond the financial reach of many groups in society - particularly because of the need for a down-payment of the membership fee.
- It is, in practice, very difficult to establish car clubs in areas where social exclusion is greatest (low density rural, high insurance risk and apathy in poor neighbourhoods, expense of providing adapted for use by disabled people);
- If car clubs can attract people who previously drove old and polluting vehicles, this should bring environmental benefits.
- It is thought that great potential exists for the establishment of car clubs in connection with new developments with restricted parking availability. Some such schemes are currently being established.
- There is a latent demand for car sharing at many workplaces.
- The potential to match people with other compatible drivers/passengers is much increased if the size of the matching pool can be increased. "There must be a role for the establishment of databases covering a number of adjacent organisations".
- Although there is initial reaction by drivers against the introduction of high occupancy vehicle lanes, if well designed they are accepted and appreciated over time. (Leeds example)
- Car sharing schemes are easier to set up than car clubs. Car clubs might develop from initial informal car sharing arrangements.
- Car sharing, particularly informal car sharing, can exist with a much smaller critical mass than is required for a car club. It may therefore be much more suitable than car clubs in rural areas.
- Some communities see public transport as inappropriate for females. Car sharing or car clubs may have a role in reducing the social exclusion which can result from this attitude.
- The availability of subsidies may distract car club operators from the task of establishing a financially viable scheme.